A sober reflection behind the DeSci craze: Can innovation open up a closed loop of scientific research?
Decentralized science DeSci takes blockchain technology as its core and attempts to fundamentally change the structure and operation mode of traditional scientific research.
Faced with multiple contradictions such as concentrated resources, rigid management, and limited knowledge dissemination, the traditional scientific research model is increasingly showing its inherent flaws. DeSci is emerging as a disruptor, opening up a new scientific research paradigm.
DeSci proposes a new model with community as the core and transparency as the foundation: through decentralized autonomous organizations (DAO), the distribution of scientific research funds and resources becomes more equitable; the scientific research process recorded on the chain not only eliminates corruption, but also provides a verifiable trust mechanism for the public and researchers. In addition, DeSci advocates open access to academic results, allowing scientific research to break through the barriers of publishing costs, promote data sharing and knowledge dissemination, and provide a new path for the universal benefit of science to society.
Although DeSci is still in its early stages of exploration, its potential cannot be ignored. For example, it can break the concentration of resources and opportunities in the traditional scientific research system, improve the accessibility and transparency of research, encourage wider community participation and collaboration, and provide new governance and funding models for scientific research. Just as the open source software revolution has changed the landscape of technology development, DeSci is also expected to become the "open source movement" in the field of scientific research. It not only carries the vision of fair distribution of resources, but is also likely to become an accelerator of scientific democratization, returning the future of scientific research to the global community. DeSci, a new scientific research model that emphasizes transparency, open access and social participation, represents an important direction of change in the field of scientific research. Although DeSci is still in its early stages of development, it provides new possibilities for solving structural problems in the traditional scientific research system.
As a supporter of cutting-edge innovative technologies, OKX Ventures conducted in-depth research on this track and came to the following core conclusions:
Conclusion 1: The DeSci track is hot, but the market is in the early stages of competition
As an emerging field, DeSci has attracted a lot of attention from users, but asset liquidity and market maturity are still insufficient. Taking the leading project VitaDAO as an example, its valuation system has not yet stabilized, and its market performance fluctuates violently and has a short cycle. This shows that the overall DeSci ecosystem is still in the early stages of exploration and it will take time to develop and establish mature valuation standards.
Conclusion 2: BioDAO and other scientific research funding projects face closed-loop challenges
BioDAO is regarded as a "DeFi protocol" in the field of scientific research. Its innovative funding mechanism and clear roadmap lay the foundation for its future development. However, the quantifiable path from financial support to the transformation of scientific research results has not yet been fully opened. The lack of a clear feedback loop may become a major obstacle to attracting trust and financial support in the long term.
Conclusion 3: Meme-driven is the core of DeSci’s current narrative
Although the concept of DeSci is rooted in scientific research, its current popularity is more driven by memes. For example, Sci-Hub, as a symbol of the community, has attracted high participation but insufficient actual conversion. Similarly, the project pump.science encourages "storytelling" teams, but the experimental mechanism needs to be further optimized. If DeSci wants to make a breakthrough, it needs the support and promotion of authoritative figures in the scientific field.
Conclusion 4: There is still a long way to go before products are put into use and marketized
Even for relatively mature projects such as VitaDAO, their main products have not yet formed a significant market influence, and there is a clear gap with traditional scientific research companies such as Altos Lab. Most DeSci projects remain at the proof-of-concept or small-scale experimental stage, and are unable to undertake the complex project management and data verification processes required for serious scientific research. There is still a long way to go before industrialization.
Conclusion 5: Return to the core advantages of blockchain and break through the implementation difficulties
DeSci's future applications should give full play to the core capabilities of blockchain technology, such as data traceability, decentralized fund allocation, verifiable academic publishing and peer review, etc. In the short term, it is difficult to implement it in combination with complex offline scenarios, so it is more suitable to give priority to the development of scientific research scenarios that adapt to the advantages of blockchain and achieve steady progress.
1. DeSci’s Methods and Use Cases
As an innovative application of Web3 technology in the field of scientific research, DeSci is solving the core pain points in traditional science (TradSci) through a series of key methods and specific use cases.
DeSci currently provides three key solutions to innovate traditional scientific research methods, covering the fairness and decentralization of funding allocation, the openness and security of data and publications, and promoting the reproducibility of scientific research.
In terms of fairness and decentralization of fund allocation, the allocation of traditional scientific research funds is usually concentrated in a few authoritative institutions, while DeSci uses the secondary donation mechanism and decentralized autonomous organizations (DAOs) to achieve transparent management and distribution of funds through smart contracts. This mechanism not only lowers the threshold for researchers to obtain funds, but also provides support for innovative and diverse scientific research projects, and promotes the fair allocation of global scientific research resources.
In terms of the openness and security of data and publications, DeSci stores scientific research data and publications on a public ledger through a decentralized research repository based on blockchain, ensuring that the results are traceable and transparent. Smart contracts provide a fair distribution mechanism for data access, enabling researchers and institutions to share and use key data resources while protecting intellectual property rights.
Promoting the reproducibility of scientific research, in which validation experiments and data reproducibility are crucial. DeSci rewards reproducible research practices by introducing token incentive mechanisms and reputation systems. Blockchain-based smart contracts also support a transparent peer review process to ensure the reliability and authenticity of scientific research findings.
DeSci's four major use cases in practice include decentralization of academic publishing, transparent management of research funding, innovative models for data sharing and collaboration, and transparency of peer review.
Specifically, first, the DeSci platform establishes a decentralized repository that allows researchers to publish their work directly. This not only breaks the barriers of traditional academic journals, but also significantly expands the reach of scientific knowledge, providing a new path for the popularization and advancement of science. Second, the DeSci platform adopts a decentralized funding allocation mechanism to provide transparent support for research projects through crowdfunding and smart contracts. Contributors are rewarded based on the quality of their research work, avoiding corruption and waste of resources in traditional funding management. Third, the DeSci platform based on blockchain technology promotes the secure sharing of research data. Data can be monetized through tokenization, while ensuring scientists' ownership of their research results, promoting the efficiency of international scientific research collaboration. Fourth, the DeSci platform enhances the credibility of scientific publications by creating public archives of research contributions and peer review activities through tamper-proof blockchain records. This transparent accountability mechanism promotes a more open academic exchange environment.
As a disruptive force in traditional scientific research, DeSci is redefining scientific governance through technology-driven transparency, openness, and fairness. Although this field is still in its early stages of development, its potential is already evident: from academic publishing to data collaboration, from funding allocation to scientific research review, DeSci is gradually becoming a key force in promoting scientific change. 
2. Overview of DeSci Track
Decentralized Science (DeSci) is leading innovative changes at all stages of scientific research through token incentives and modular design. From democratizing funding decisions to promoting open access to scientific knowledge, DeSci's goal remains the same: to break the limitations of traditional scientific research and provide a more transparent and fair scientific research ecosystem for scientists around the world. The following are DeSci's specific practices and achievements in open publishing and decentralized scientific research.
1. Open Publishing Platform
The traditional scientific publishing process is slow and expensive, while decentralized publishing platforms improve the efficiency of scientific research dissemination through open and instant knowledge sharing. These DeSci platforms allow researchers to publicly publish papers, datasets, and methods, while introducing interactive peer review and social collaboration tools.
ResearchHub introduces a token-based reward mechanism to incentivize peer reviewers to provide professional feedback on published research. Smart contracts automatically pay out rewards once the review is completed and verified, ensuring that reviewers are rewarded fairly and promptly.
DeSci Labs focuses on using blockchain technology to ensure the integrity of scientific data, protecting published materials through tamper-proof records, and providing strong anti-censorship and anti-loss capabilities. The DeSci Nodes it developed allow researchers to create and publish research objects based on the FAIR data standard, stored in an open decentralized data warehouse, connected through a permanent unique identifier and a decentralized resolver system, supporting citations and accumulating academic credit. These research objects include: manuscripts, codes, data sets, videos, etc.
Developers can use the open publishing platform to build applications on the open data layer and implement custom coordination and value accumulation mechanisms. Applications can also be integrated with other DeSci stack modules, such as using the review results of the publishing platform or OpSci's influential NFT to verify the identity and historical achievements of researchers.
Through the DeSci project, researchers and their datasets, methods, and results can be tokenized, including the publication of manuscripts. The traditional journal publishing model that requires payment for upload or access fees will be replaced by a decentralized data layer and market platform. In this model: researchers can freely display manuscripts, similar to how NFTs are publicly displayed on platforms such as OpenSea. In addition, platform fees will be priced for users who want to buy or sell ownership of research results, rather than authors or readers.
As these open-source publishing platforms continue to evolve, decentralized identity and reputation systems will emerge that help break down information silos and remove traditional “gatekeeper” barriers, thereby facilitating the free flow of ideas between different research environments.
2. Research on DAO
DAO is one of DeSci's core practices. It is a collective decision-making mechanism coordinated through blockchain and smart contracts that allows community members to jointly fund and manage scientific projects. Research DAOs usually revolve around specific scientific topics, such as longevity, genetics, or environmental science, and use tokenized governance models to allow funders, researchers, and the public to jointly decide on research directions.
For example, in the BIO ecosystem: VitaDao for life and longevity, ValleyDAO for climate change and food security, Athena DAO for women's health, Hair DAO for hair loss treatment, and others like FrontierDAO and VibeBio are dedicated to research and investment in space, fusion energy, climate and biotechnology startups respectively.
Traditional funding models tend to support large, low-risk projects, while DAOs are able to fund more high-risk, high-innovation potential "small-dollar" research. DAO's decentralized governance mechanism avoids the bureaucracy of traditional funding agencies and provides greater freedom for scientific research.
(III) Financing and IP Platform
DeSci’s grant and intellectual property (IP) projects democratize the funding, ownership, and commercialization of scientific innovation through blockchain technology. These projects include platforms that issue tokens representing fractional ownership of research projects, and integration of blockchain-based grant management systems—functionality also used by some research DAOs.
Many DeSci funding platforms support research and protect intellectual property through tokenized assets, allowing community members to issue awards for specific scientific directions, and scientists can apply for these funds for research. In addition, researchers are able to seek community funding and support for independent projects, thus promoting a more inclusive scientific funding model. This mechanism ensures that funds flow to widely supported projects and enables research efforts to meet the diverse needs of the scientific community.
Molecule is an intellectual property financing and tokenization platform focused on the biopharmaceutical field. So far, the platform has distributed about $2 million to different research DAOs through its IP-NFT protocol and has driven the entire ecosystem TVL to $30 million.
Bio.xyz: An on-chain science version of Y Combinator incubated by Molecule, focused on accelerating scientific innovation.
Funding is a pain point for scientists. They spend a lot of time writing grant applications, but whether they can successfully obtain funding depends largely on their H-index, which is used to quantify the impact of scientists' papers. Under pressure, scientists often chase new hot topics to attract attention. Ultimately, insufficient and unstable funding will not only reduce scientific research output, but also lead to biased selection of research projects and even cause the "replication crisis" problem. 
DeSci advocates replacing the h-index with NFTs, which can evaluate other important factors such as expertise, teaching ability, mentoring skills, and collaboration with other scientists. To maintain operations, DAOs can monetize the intellectual property generated by their funded research through the introduction of IP-NFTs. Through the Molecule Marketplace, research projects can be connected with potential investors, and research results are stored in the form of IP-NFT metadata. IP-NFTs provide legal protection for research results and are an innovative alternative to traditional patents. Traditional patents tend to block and restrict data, slowing down the pace of scientific discovery, while IP-NFTs are open and flexible and provide the following monetization methods:
•Licensing IP for commercialization: licensing intellectual property to other organizations.
•Split ownership with partners: Share value by dividing intellectual property.
• Trade data on the open market: continuously generate royalty revenue for creators.
•Lending as collateral: Financing using the value of the intellectual property.
•IP-NFT can also bring new research coordination mechanisms, such as:
•Access control: Only verified participants are allowed to contribute to the research and receive compensation.
Over time, many DAOs may evolve from a single funding function to comprehensive communities covering other aspects of the research economy. In addition to these tokenized seed funding platforms, more decentralized secondary markets may emerge in the future. These markets will enable researchers and funders to transfer ownership of intellectual property or license it to other investors and community members, further promoting commercialization and collaboration of scientific innovation.
4. Medical Data Network
Decentralized medical data networks aim to create a safer, more efficient, and more equitable healthcare system through the use of distributed databases and collaborative research tools. These platforms can aggregate and analyze multiple data sets (such as clinical trial results, patient records, and genetic data), making data more accessible while protecting patient privacy. This area is particularly critical as the importance of medical data continues to grow, personalized medicine becomes more prevalent, and patients' demands for data protection and shared control grow.
Given the complexity of the healthcare industry, the goals of the decentralized healthcare data network cover long-term development and diverse priorities:
GenomesDAO provides a decentralized genome database that securely stores and shares historical genome data to support long-term drug development.
Life Network: Users can control and monetize their DNA data, earn rewards for healthy living, and support researchers and developers to build personalized genomic applications.
Hippocrat develops systems that track patient treatment progress in real time and securely share real-time data among authorized stakeholders.
Data Lake: Allows individuals to tokenize and sell health data and medical records to researchers.
As this space continues to develop, adoption of decentralized identity systems will increase, enabling seamless and secure access to healthcare services across different service providers and jurisdictions. This will improve continuity of care and enhance the overall patient experience.
5. Infrastructure
The infrastructure project is committed to building secure, scalable and interoperable systems to meet the diverse needs of the global scientific community. These systems include decentralized governance tools, storage solutions, and systems that can identify users across different platforms and institutions. Through these solutions, other DeSci teams can focus on their core scientific research goals without worrying about the complexity of building and maintaining backend systems.
1. Decentralized storage and computing
Arweave and Filecoin: Support distributed storage and sharing of scientific data and NFTs (such as IP-NFTs, Impact Certificates).
Bacalhau: Supports direct computation over data where data is stored, generating unique content identifiers (CIDs) to ensure data repeatability and verifiability.
2. Collaboration Mechanism and Value Realization
Lab.bio provides researchers with open access to biological machine learning models and experimental tools without the need for expensive on-premises resource configuration and hosting.
The Coordination Network provides AI-powered tools for research aggregation and data extraction, proposal review and drafting, and recruitment of research candidates.
OpSci: Unlike IP-NFT, OpSci uses "Impact Certificate NFT" to tokenize researchers' identity, qualifications, and projects.
3. Impact Certificate collaboration tool
Holonym: zkDID, Web3 scientist yellow pages, allowing users to log in with academic credentials.
Hypercerts: ERC-1155 tokens for tracking research methods, datasets, and results. Researchers can attract funding by transparently demonstrating research progress while protecting data ownership.
The DeSci collaborative model not only enables researchers to obtain funding more fairly, but also improves the efficiency and credibility of scientific research worldwide through publicly verified data sets. In order to widely promote DeSci, it is crucial to improve the user-friendliness and value of the platform, especially for those who lack Web3 experience. Although some projects choose to build their own infrastructure, modular and flexible components are still necessary.
6. DeSci Memes
Researchers face many challenges in obtaining funding in the early stages, and there are also significant difficulties in raising funds through the issuance of memecoin. First, most of the public lack scientific knowledge and find it difficult to effectively support complex projects. In addition, it usually takes 5 to 10 years for scientific research to go from initial research to actual results, and the price of memecoin fluctuates violently, making it difficult to provide stable funding for long-term research. However, DeSci's liquidity exit mechanism provides flexible funding for scientific research projects, and has indeed helped some scientific research teams at the financial level, bringing actual funding results. Other benefits include:
Cultural communication and promotion: As a cultural output and propaganda tool, DeSci meme effectively directs the attention of the crypto community to the field of DeSci and scientific research.
Incentive mechanism: DeSci meme creates a positive value cycle by allowing investors to participate in gamified incentives and speculative games, which not only increases the liquidity of funds but also enhances investors' sense of participation and interests.
3. Introduction of Hot Projects
1. BIO DAO
BIO DAO is a startup and acceleration platform focused on decentralized science (DeSci), bringing together scientists, patients and investors to disrupt traditional scientific research funding models using blockchain technology. Through the financial infrastructure of the BIO Protocol, BIO DAO provides on-chain organizational tools, financing support, and intellectual property (IP) tokenization solutions to create a transparent and efficient scientific research funding ecosystem. Since its inception, BIO DAO has promoted the development of 6 BioDAOs with a total valuation of more than $180 million, and has put more than $10 million of scientific research IP on the chain through the Molecule platform.
BIO DAO's financing capabilities have attracted much attention: strategic financing (investors include Binance Labs) and Genesis auctions (raising $6.22 million) will be completed in 2024. Its core technologies include IP-NFT and IPT token mechanisms, which enable trading and sharing of scientific research results. In addition, BIO DAO supports the implementation of projects such as HairDAO (hair loss treatment) and CerebrumDAO (brain health research), showing the strong potential of decentralized scientific research models. In the field of DeSci, where challenges and opportunities coexist, BIO DAO is opening up new paths for scientific research funding through innovative models and interdisciplinary cooperation.
2. VitaDAO
VitaDAO is a pioneering program dedicated to extending human life span, focusing on supporting early-stage R&D projects in longevity science worldwide. Unlike traditional scientific research funding models, VitaDAO uses blockchain technology and DAO governance mechanisms to allow ordinary investors and professional institutions to participate together, providing more open and diverse investment opportunities. The platform's core governance token $VITA supports token holders in key matters such as funding decisions and intellectual property management, and ensures transparency and fairness in the community through an on-chain voting process. VitaDAO's investment cases in the field of longevity, such as its support for Turn.bio, highlight its keen insight in cutting-edge scientific investment.
VitaDAO executes matters decided by DAO votes through the Canadian entity VitaDAO Global Services, Inc, ensuring that the execution of project funding is concentrated in the protected entity while providing legal protection for token holders. This structure can refuse to execute DAO decisions in extreme cases and allow stakeholders to seek solutions through legal means. In addition, VitaDAO also promotes the development of candidate drug ARTAN-102 through cooperation with Lonza and launches the VitaLabs scholarship program to further promote innovation in the field of longevity among global scientific research talents. In the future, VitaDAO will continue to bring more breakthroughs to longevity science research through decentralized funding and governance models.
3. PumpScience
Pump.Science is a decentralized science (DeSci) platform launched by Molecule DAO, which aims to provide financial support for longevity research through cryptocurrency and gamification mechanisms. The platform transforms anti-aging research into a participatory prediction game, encouraging the crypto community to fund scientific experiments by purchasing and trading tokens. Users can track the progress of experiments in real time and evaluate the value of experimental results through the appreciation or decay of tokens. Through this innovative model, Pump.Science hopes to open up new paths in the field of DeSci, promote the commercialization of longevity science, and accelerate the transformation of research results.
Pump.Science's operating model includes drug developers submitting experimental proposals and paying SOL tokens as experimental fees, and then raising funds on the platform by issuing tokens. The experiments are divided into multiple levels, from nematode experiments to mouse experiments, and different research progress is unlocked based on the token sales. The experimental data is updated live in real time, allowing participants to participate and evaluate the scientific research results. The platform provides flexible and continuous financial support through a token incentive mechanism, breaking through the limitations of traditional scientific research funds. Although ethical review and experimental design still need to be improved, its gamification and decentralized model has brought new impetus to the field of scientific research.
4. Sci-Hub
Sci-Hub, founded in 2011 by Kazakh graduate student Alexandra Elbakian, aims to bypass the paywalls of academic publishers and provide free access to scientific research papers. As of February 2021, it has stored more than 85 million academic articles and has become an important resource for the global academic community, especially in academic institutions that cannot afford high subscription fees. Although its operations have sparked multiple legal disputes with publishers such as Elsevier, Elbakian insists that many scientific research results are funded by the government and should be open to the public. Recently, Sci-Hub launched the SCIHUB token to maintain platform operations and promote community participation, but this token has also sparked controversy over the way funds are raised.
The launch of SCIHUB tokens aims to raise funds through cryptocurrency to maintain the operation of Sci-Hub and promote the platform ecosystem. Founder Elbakian can sell up to 1% of tokens (about 10 million) per month, with the goal of raising $20,000. However, some people believe that raising funds by hyping meme coins is inconsistent with the original intention of supporting scientific research, and the tokens lack actual value, and even accuse it of "rat warehouse" problems. But some supporters believe that this method is an innovative fund-raising model that can increase the sense of community participation, similar to the concept of lottery, and inspire more people to support scientific research. The future application and value of SCIHUB tokens still need further development and verification.
5. ResearchHub
ResearchHub (RH) is a decentralized research platform co-founded by CoinBase CEO Brian Armstrong, which aims to break the closed nature of traditional peer-reviewed journals. The core idea of RH is to make scientific research results no longer hidden behind paywalls. Scientists can publish, like and comment on research results on the platform, similar to HackerNews in the scientific community. In addition, RH pays a peer review fee of US$150 per article, which is particularly popular among researchers in developing countries. Since its establishment, RH has completed 2,800 peer reviews, with a turnaround time much lower than the traditional journal system. With US legislation requiring federally funded research to be open access, RH announced that it will expand into a journal platform, launching free preprints, open access publishing and paid peer review services.
ResearchHub is not only a decentralized science platform, but also part of the "open science" movement. By providing open peer review and fast article processing, RH has greatly improved the efficiency of scientific research. One of RH's core innovations is the introduction of prediction markets, which promote the replicability and verifiability of scientific research results by pre-registering and predicting research results. RH plans to redefine the "real" scientific research standards through this innovative mechanism, especially under the funding and time pressures generally faced by the academic community, to provide researchers with a more efficient and fair working environment.
6. Life Network
Life Network is an emerging platform focusing on biotechnology, longevity and artificial intelligence, dedicated to promoting research and innovation in genetic data through DAO and platform mechanisms. The core mechanisms of the project include: DAO mechanism, which incentivizes researchers to conduct the required genetic and health-related research through blockchain and promotes scientific exploration of genetic data. Platform mechanism, users upload their DNA data to the network, and researchers and developers can conduct research or develop AI-driven applications based on this data. Life Network hopes to maintain long-term user participation and promote continuous data contribution by continuously providing services and analysis.
DNA sampling and gene sequencing technologies are becoming increasingly mature, and companies such as 23andMe already have more than 14.8 million users, driving the rapid growth of the global genomics market. Life Network has taken a place in this rapidly growing market by providing decentralized genetic data storage and privacy protection solutions. Its core products include: Life Network, a decentralized platform that enables users to manage their own DNA data, and ensures data ownership and privacy protection through methods such as GeneNFT, while providing researchers with data access transparency. Life App, an attractive mobile application that provides personalized genetic analysis and health advice, and provides users with customized health services through Life Marketplace. The project ensures the privacy, security and transparency of user data through the support of blockchain technology, while maximizing the commercial potential of genetic data and promoting innovation in fields such as medical care, nutrition and behavioral health.
4. Challenges and risks in the development of DeSci
OKX Ventures believes that although decentralized science (DeSci) has shown great potential, it still faces many challenges in its development. Although its innovative protocols and models have attracted widespread attention in the scientific research field, it still takes time to verify whether it can successfully capture value and achieve sustainable operations.
In terms of intellectual property management, DeSci is facing a major test of commercialization. The uncertainty of scientific research results makes the model of intellectual property tokenization through IP-NFT full of risks. If the community cannot effectively transform these intellectual property rights into a sustainable source of income, the economic structure of the project will be affected. At the same time, cooperation with traditional scientific research institutions often means the transfer of most IPs, which requires DAO to invest a lot of resources in complex negotiations and increase the cost of operation.
In terms of verifiability, decentralized identity and data verification protocols are still in their early stages. Researchers may falsify their credentials to obtain funding or even engage in illegal research, increasing the risk. At the same time, the high rate of fake papers in open access journals affects the credibility of research and leads to uneven scientific quality. Therefore, there is an urgent need to establish a strong reputation and governance system to ensure the reliability of research results.
Although open and verifiable methods can help improve the reproducibility of research, DeSci currently lacks sufficient incentives to promote replication and verification work. At present, the scientific research community's support for verification research is relatively weak, which directly affects the robustness and reliability of scientific discoveries.
Compliance issues are also a major challenge in the development of DeSci. Decentralized storage protocols may not fully comply with data privacy regulations such as GDPR and HIPAA, which means that projects must work closely with regulators to ensure compliance. In addition, many open science platforms have difficulty maintaining low-cost operations, which limits their attractiveness to more researchers and affects the long-term sustainability of the project.
In addition, gender imbalance also restricts the further development of DeSci. At present, the scientific research field is still dominated by men, which may lead to the neglect of some research directions, especially issues such as women's health. Promoting diverse participation in gender and background is crucial to ensure the comprehensiveness and fairness of scientific research.
Despite these challenges, DeSci still has great potential for development. To achieve its goals, DeSci must make breakthroughs in solving the commercialization of intellectual property, strengthening the data verification system, establishing incentive mechanisms, ensuring compliance, and promoting diversified participation. As these issues are gradually resolved, DeSci is expected to bring profound changes to global scientific research.
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